In 1948, the behaviorist B.F. Skinner reported an experiment in which pigeons were presented with food at fixed intervals, with no relationship to any given pigeon's behavior. Despite that lack of relationship, most of the pigeons developed distinct superstitious rituals and maneuvers, apparently believing that these actions resulted in food. As Skinner reported, “Their appearance as the result of accidental correlations with the presentation of the stimulus is unmistakable.”
Superstition is a by-product of the search for patterns between events – usually occurring in close proximity. This kind of search for patterns is essential for the continuation of a species, but it also lends itself to false beliefs. As Foster and Kokko (2009) put it, “The inability of individuals – human or otherwise – to assign causal probabilities to all sets of events that occur around them… will often force them to make many incorrect causal associations, in order to establish those that are essential for survival.”
The ability to infer cause and effect, based on the frequency with which one event co-occurs with some other event, is called “adaptive” or “Bayesian” learning. Humans, pigeons, and many animals have this ability to learn relationships in their world. Still, one thing that separates humans from animals is the ability to evaluate whether there is really any actual mechanistic link between cause and effect. When we stop looking for those links, and believe that one thing causes another because “it just does” – we give up the benefits of human intelligence and exchange them for the reflexive impulses of lemmings, sheep, and pigeons.
Top 5 Consumer Service Stocks To Invest In 2015: Salix Pharmaceuticals Ltd (SLXP)
Salix Pharmaceuticals, Ltd., incorporated on December 31, 2001, is a specialty pharmaceutical company dedicated to acquiring, developing and commercializing prescription drugs and medical devices used in the treatment of a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, which are those affecting the digestive tract. As of December 31, 2012, the Company�� products included XIFAXAN, MOVIPREP, APRISO, RELISTOR, OSMOPREP, SOLESTA, DEFLUX, FULYZAQ, GIAZO, METOZOLV ODT, AZASAN, ANUSOL-HC, PROCTOCORT, PEPCID, DIURIL and COLAZAL. As of December 31, 2012, its primary product candidates under development included Rifaximin, Methylnaltrexone bromide oral, Budesonide foam and Rifaximin EIR. In January 2014, Salix Pharmaceuticals, Ltd. acquired Santarus, Inc.
Xifaxan (rifaximin) tablets
Xifaxan is a gastrointestinal-specific oral antibiotic. The Food and Drug Administration ( FDA) approved Xifaxan 200 milligram for the treatment of patients 12 years of age and older with travelers��diarrhea caused by noninvasive strains of E coli. Xifaxan 550 milligram was approved by the FDA for reduction in risk of overt hepatic encephalopathy (HE), recurrence in patients 18 years of age or older.
It launched Xifaxan 200milligram in the United States and Xifaxan 550 milligram using its own direct sales force. The Company is exploring potential additional indications, formulations, clinical trials and co-promotion arrangements to capitalize on the potential for Xifaxan, including its development program in irritable bowel syndrome.
In October 2012, the USPTO declared an interference action to determine the priority of invention between Cipla�� application related to amorphous rifaximin and Solmag SpA�� application directed to amorphous rifaximin. In February 2012, the FDA posted draft bioequivalence guidance for rifaximin 550 milligram tablets. The draft guidance for rifaximin 550 milligram tablets recommends that in addition to conducting the program outlined in the FDA posted ! draft guidance document for rifaximin 200 milligram tablets discussed above, a single-dose, three-way crossover in-vivo study of fasting bioequivalence with pharmacokinetic endpoints in both fasting and fed states be performed in the 550 milligram tablets. Additionally, the guidance stipulated that the formulation of the 550 milligram strength should be proportionally similar to that of the 200 milligram strength in order to file an ANDA for approval of a generic rifaximin 550 milligram tablet for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy.
MoviPrep (PEG 3350, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium ascorbate and ascorbic acid) oral solution
MoviPrep is a patent-protected, liquid polyethylene glycol-salt, or PEG, bowel cleansing product that the FDA approved. MoviPrep is indicated for bowel cleansing prior to colonoscopy, intestinal surgery and barium enema X-ray examinations.
Apriso (mesalamine) extended-release capsules 0.375 gram
Apriso is a locally-acting aminosalicylate and is the only delayed and extended release mesalamine product approved by the FDA for once-a-day dosing for the maintenance of remission of ulcerative colitis. Apriso is designed to provide for the distribution of the active ingredient beginning in the small bowel and continuing throughout the colon. The product�� prolonged release mechanism might allow them to expand the range of treatment options for ulcerative colitis.
Relistor (methylnaltrexone bromide)
Relistor Subcutaneous Injection is indicated for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation (OIC) in patients with advanced illness who are receiving palliative care, when response to laxative therapy has not been sufficient. Relistor is approved for use in over 55 countries worldwide.
OsmoPrep and Visicol (sodium phosphate monobasic monohydrate, USP, sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous, USP) tablets
Visicol and OsmoPrep tablets are indicated for clean! sing of t! he colon as a preparation for colonoscopy in adults 18 years of age or older. Visicol and OsmoPrep are the only, tablet bowel cleansing products approved by the FDA and marketed in the United States. OsmoPrep is a patented, second-generation tablet bowel cleansing product that the FDA approved. OsmoPrep offers potential benefits compared to Visico,l such as its lack of microcrystalline cellulose, smaller tablet size and possible lower dose administration.
Solesta
Solesta is a biocompatible tissue bulking agent, consisting of dextranomer microspheres and stabilized sodium hyaluronate. Solesta is indicated for the treatment of fecal incontinence in patients 18 years and older who have failed conservative therapy, such as diet, fiber therapy and/or anti-motility medications. It is the only injectable gel for this indication to be administered in an outpatient setting without the need for surgery or anesthesia.
Deflux
Deflux is a medical device indicated for children affected by Grades II-IV vesicoureteral reflux, a malformation of the urinary bladder that can result in severe infections of the kidneys and irreversible kidney damage. Deflux was granted premarket approval application (PMA) approval, and has been on the market in the United States.
Fulyzaq (crofelemer) delayed-release tablets
On December 31, 2012, the FDA granted marketing approval for this product, under the trade name Fulyzaq. Fulyzaq is indicated for the symptomatic relief of non-infectious diarrhea in adult patients with HIV/AIDS on anti-retroviral therapy. Fulyzaq should also be eligible for five years of marketing exclusivity from the date of FDA approval, and the product might be entitled to patent term restoration.
Giazo (balsalazide disodium) tablets
February 3, 2012, the FDA granted marketing approval for this product under the trade name Giazo. Giazo is indicated for the treatment of mildly to moderately active ulcerative col! itis in m! ale patients 18 years of age and older. It shipped Giazo to wholesalers in 2012.
Metozolv ODT (metoclopramide hydrochloride) 5 milligrams and 10 milligrams orally disintegrating tablets
METOZOLV ODT is indicated for the relief of symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux or short-term (4-12 weeks) therapy for adults with symptomatic, documented gastroesophageal reflux who fail to respond to conventional therapy and diabetic gastroparesis or the relief of symptoms in adults associated with acute and recurrent diabetic gastroparesis.
Azasan (azathioprine) tablets
Azasan is an FDA-approved drug that suppresses immune system responses and is indicated for preventing rejection of kidney transplants and treatment of severe arthritis. It launched the 75 and 100 milligrams dosage strengths of Azasan in the United States.
Anusol-HC and Proctocort (hydrocortisone) creams and suppositories
The Company acquired the right to sell Anusol-HC 2.5% (hydrocortisone USP) cream, Anusol-HC 25 milligrams (hydrocortisone acetate) rectal suppositories, Proctocort 1% (hydrocortisone USP) cream and Proctocort 30 mg (hydrocortisone acetate) rectal suppositories from King Pharmaceuticals, Inc. The two cream products are topical corticosteroids indicated for relief of the inflammatory and pruritic, or itching, manifestations of corticosteroid-responsive dermatoses. The two suppository products are indicated for use in inflamed hemorrhoids and postirradiation proctitis, as well as an adjunct in the treatment of chronic ulcerative colitis and other inflammatory conditions.
Pepcid (famotidine) for Oral Suspension and Diuril (Chlorothiazide)
Pepcid Oral Suspension is a widely known prescription pharmaceutical product indicated for several gastrointestinal indications, including the treatment of duodenal ulcer, benign gastric ulcer and gastro-esophageal reflux disease. Pepcid Oral Suspension and Diuril Oral Suspension, both liquid form! ulations ! of their solid dosage form counterparts, compete in a combined annual United States market concentrated in pediatric and hospitalized patient populations.
Colazal (balsalazide disodium) capsules
The Company launched Colazal to physicians in the United States. FDA approved Colazal for use in pediatric patients between 5 to 17 years of age with ulcerative colitis. The pediatric use of Colazal has been granted orphan drug designation. The Office of Generic Drugs, or OGD, approved three generic balsalazide capsule products.
The Company competes with GlaxoSmithKline plc, Giuliani S.p.A., Axcan Pharma, Inc., Abbott Laboratories, Warner Chilcott plc, Shire Pharmaceuticals Group plc, Pharmacia & Upjohn, Inc., Alaven Pharmaceutical LLC, Ferring Pharmaceuticals, Inc, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Cumberland Pharmaceuticals, Inc, Prometheus Laboratories, Inc., Ranbaxy Pharmaceuticals, Ferndale Laboratories, GATE Pharmaceuticals , Nycomed , Medtronic, Inc., and Cubist Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
Advisors' Opinion:- [By Garrett Cook]
Salix Pharmaceuticals (NASDAQ: SLXP) shares shot up 4.52 percent to $167.05 on report of takeover talks with Allergan. Allergan (NYSE: AGN) is set to acquire Salix Pharmaceuticals in a deal probably worth more than $10 billion, according to Dow Jones Newswires.
Top Heal Care Stocks To Invest In 2014: LSI Logic Corporation (LSI)
LSI Corporation designs, develops, and markets storage and networking semiconductors worldwide. It offers integrated circuits for hard disk and tape drive solutions, which are used to store and retrieve data in personal computers, corporate network servers, archive/back-up devices, and consumer electronics products. The company�s storage electronics products include systems-on-a-chip, read channels, pre-amplifiers, serial physical interfaces, and hard disk controllers, as well as custom firmware required to read, write, and protect data. It also offers pre-amplifiers, which are used to amplify the initial signal to and from the drive disk heads; and solutions that transmit data between a host computer and storage peripheral devices. In addition, the company provides custom and standard networking solutions that include chips, such as network processors, digital signal processors, content-inspection processors, traffic shaping devices, and physical layer devices, as well a s software, evaluation systems, and reference designs for office, home office, and small-to-medium business applications; flash storage processors; server storage semiconductor products, and server RAID adapters and software; and high-speed interface intellectual property that combine with customers� intellectual property to provide a connection to the SAN, memory systems, and host buses. Further, it offers networking solutions include communication processors, network processors, media processors, content-inspection processors, and physical layer devices, as well as software tools and segment specific applications, evaluation systems, and reference designs. The company was formerly known as LSI Logic Corporation and changed its name to LSI Corporation in April 2007. The company was founded in 1980 and is headquartered in Milpitas, California.
Advisors' Opinion:- [By Lee Jackson]
LSI Corp. (NASDAQ: LSI) supplies Cisco with application specific integrated circuits (ASIC) for a variety of high-end gear,�and also indirectly sells into its Scientific Atlanta division by supplying chips for disk drives that end up in DVRs. The consensus price objective for the stock is $9. Investors are paid a 1.7% dividend.
Top Heal Care Stocks To Invest In 2014: Mazda Motor Corp (MZDAF)
Mazda Motor Corporation is a Japan-based company engaged in the manufacture and distribution of automobiles and automobile parts. The Company provides mini vans, compact vehicles, sports cars, sport-utility vehicles, station wagons, sedans, light cars, commercial vehicles, welfare vehicles and special edition automobiles, as well as automobile accessories, including car navigation systems, automobile audio systems, side monitors, rear seat monitors, electronic toll collection (ETC) in-vehicle equipment, security products, driving support products, bulbs, pet carriers and child seats, among others. As of March 31, 2013, the Company had 56 consolidated subsidiaries and 15 associated companies. Advisors' Opinion:- [By MARKETWATCH]
LOS ANGELES (MarketWatch) -- Japanese stocks jumped at the start of trading Monday, with exporters finding support as the yen weakened against the U.S. dollar and the euro. The Nikkei Stock Average (JP:NIK) climbed 270 points, or 1.8%, to 15,570, and the broader Topix scaled higher by 1.3%. The dollar pushed back above the 楼103 level after a better-than-expected U.S. jobs report for November, while the euro topped the 楼141 level for the first time since October 2008, according to FactSet data. Auto stocks were stronger, with Mazda Motor Corp. (JP:7261) (MZDAF) surging 3.2%, Nissan Motor Co. (JP:7201) (NSANY) up 2.2% and Toyota Motor Corp. (JP:7203) (TM) gaining 1.1%. Techs also benefited from yen weakness, with a 1.3% rise in shares of Sony Corp. (JP:6758) (SNE) , and bounce of 1.1% for stock in Canon Inc. (JP:7751) (CAJ) .
- [By MARKETWATCH]
LOS ANGELES (MarketWatch) -- Japanese stocks opened higher Tuesday, with shares of exporters supported by further weakness in the yen against the U.S. dollar. The Nikkei Stock Average (JP:NIK) rose 62 points, or 0.4%, to 15,716.60, and the broader Topix gained 0.2%. The dollar on Monday bought more than 楼103 for the first time since May, bolstered by better-than-expected U.S. manufacturing data. Shares of Mazda Motor Corp. (JP:7261) (MZDAF) paced advancers in the auto sector, with their climb of 2.1% adding to Monday's rise of 2.3%. Among tech names, Fujifilm Holdings Corp. (JP:4901) (FUJIF) picked up 1.9%, TDK Corp. (JP:6762) (TTDKF) rose 1.2%. Financial issues, however, were mostly lower, with Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group Inc. (JP:8316) (SMFG) off 0.2%.
- [By MARKETWATCH]
LOS ANGELES (MarketWatch) -- Stocks in Japan jumped Wednesday in early trade, with the benchmark index winning back part of losses during the previous day's selloff. The Nikkei Stock Average (JP:NIK) rose 1.6% to 15,665.47, and the broader Topix gained 1.3%, aided as the U.S. dollar (USDJPY) traded back above the 104-level against the yen. Auto shares bounced up, with Mazda Motor Corp. (JP:7261) (MZDAF) higher by 2.2% and Honda Motor Co. (JP:7267) (HMC) rising by 0.9%. Toshiba Corp. (JP:6502) (TOSYY) shares leapt 3.5% after the Westinghouse unit of the company agreed to buy a majority stake in NuGen, a U.K. nuclear joint venture between France's GDF Suez (FR:GSZ) and Spain's Iberdrola [es: ibe].
Top Heal Care Stocks To Invest In 2014: Tokyo Electron Ltd (TOELY.PK)
Tokyo Electron Limited is a company mainly engaged in the manufacture and sale of electronic products for industrial uses. The Semiconductor Manufacturing Equipment, Flat-panel Display (FPD) and Photovoltaic Cell (PV) Manufacturing Equipment segment provides coaters and developers for wafer processing, plasma etching equipment, thermal processing systems, single wafer deposition systems, cleaning systems, coaters and developers for FPD manufacturing, ashing devices and plasma chemical vapor deposition (CVD) devices. The Electronic Component and Information Communication Equipment segment designs, develops, purchases and sells semiconductor products such as integrated circuits (ICs), computer and network equipment and software. The Others segment involves in logistics, facility management and insurance businesses. On April 1, 2013, it merged with two subsidiaries. In January 2014, the Company established TEL-Applied Holdings B.V. and a Japan-based company. Advisors' Opinion:- [By Stephen Simpson, CFA]
Ultratech isn't the only game in town, though, and there are multiple technologies and process steps that are going to play significant roles in the production of FinFETs and 3D circuits. With that, I would take a look at Mattson Technologies (MTSN), as this company has already accomplished the not-so-easy task of gaining meaningful share in the dry strip, rapid thermal processing (RTP), and etch markets despite competing with giants like Lam Research (LRCX), Applied Materials (AMAT), and Tokyo Electron (TOELY.PK).
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